The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11, 2001. The attacks killed 2,997 people, injured over 6,000 others, and caused at least $10 billion in infrastructure and property damage.

Four passenger airliners operated by two major U.S. passenger air carriers (United Airlines and American Airlines) all of which departed from airports in the northeastern United States bound for California were hijacked by 19 al-Qaeda terrorists. Two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. Within an hour and 42 minutes, both 110-story towers collapsed, with debris and the resulting fires causing partial or complete collapse of all other buildings in the World Trade Center complex, including the 47-story 7 World Trade Center tower, as well as significant damage to ten other large surrounding structures. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon (the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense) in Arlington County, Virginia, leading to a partial collapse of the building's western side. The fourth plane, United Airlines Flight 93, initially was steered toward Washington, D.C., but crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after its passengers tried to overcome the hijackers. 9/11 was the single deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers[4] in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively.

The idea for the attacks came from Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who first presented it to Osama bin Laden in 1996.[62] At that time, bin Laden and al-Qaeda were in a period of transition, having just relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan. The 1998 African Embassy bombings and bin Laden's 1998 fatwā marked a turning point, as bin Laden became intent on attacking the United States.

In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot. A series of meetings occurred in early 1999, involving Mohammed, bin Laden, and his deputy Mohammed Atef. Atef provided operational support for the plot, including target selections and helping arrange travel for the hijackers.[63] Bin Laden overruled Mohammed, rejecting some potential targets such as the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles because, "there was not enough time to prepare for such an operation".

Planning of the attacks:

Diagram showing the attacks on the World Trade Center
Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support for the plot, and was involved in selecting participants.[66] Bin Laden initially selected Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, both experienced jihadists who had fought in Bosnia. Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid-January 2000. In spring 2000, Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego, California, but both spoke little English, performed poorly with flying lessons, and eventually served as secondary – or "muscle" – hijackers.

In late 1999, a group of men from Hamburg, Germany arrived in Afghanistan, including Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh. Bin Laden selected these men because they were educated, could speak English, and had experience living in the West. New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and al-Qaeda leaders consequently discovered that Hani Hanjour already had a commercial pilot's license. Mohammed later said that he helped the hijackers blend in by teaching them how to order food in restaurants and dress in Western clothing.

Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8, 2000, joining Hazmi.They soon left for Arizona, where Hanjour took refresher training. Marwan al-Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000, while Atta arrived on June 3, 2000, and Jarrah arrived on June 27, 2000.[73]:6 Bin al-Shibh applied several times for a visa to the United States, but as a Yemeni, he was rejected out of concerns he would overstay his visa and remain as an illegal immigrant. 14 Bin al-Shibh stayed in Hamburg, providing coordination between Atta and Mohammed. The three Hamburg cell members all took pilot training in South Florida.

In spring of 2001, the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States.[74] In July 2001, Atta met with bin al-Shibh in Spain, where they coordinated details of the plot, including final target selection. Bin al-Shibh also passed along bin Laden's wish for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible. Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi officials who were family members, or used fraudulent passports to gain entry.

Cassini Spacecraft, source: NASA

Cassini–Huygens  is an unmanned spacecraft sent to the planet Saturn. It is a Flagship class NASA–ESA–ASI robotic spacecraft. Cassini is the fourth space probe to visit Saturn and the first to enter orbit. It has studied the planet and its many natural satellites since arriving there in 2004

After 13 years exploring Saturn, the probe will dive deep into the planet’s atmosphere for its explosive "grand finale."

Next week, a fireball streaking through the skies of Saturn will herald the end of an era: the demise of NASA’s venerable Cassini spacecraft.

In 2004, Cassini began exploring the Saturn system. For more than 13 years, it has swiveled, flipped, and flown around the ringed planet and its many moons, executing millions of commands and beaming back more than 450,000 images.

While it’s tempting to wish that Cassini could become a permanent inhabitant of the system even after running out of fuel, the probe’s final scientific mission will be to destroy itself by plunging into Saturn’s atmosphere.

“I feel like the end of mission is rushing toward me much faster than I had expected,” says project scientist Linda Spilker. “On that final day, I will feel a mixture of sadness and tremendous pride in all that she has accomplished.”

On September 11, a gravitational nudge from the large moon Titan will set Cassini on a collision course with Saturn. Around 1 p.m. PT on September 14, Cassini will take its last picture. From then on, it will be in continuous contact with Earth as it makes its last journey inward.

Around 3:30 a.m. on September 15, it will begin its plunge through the planet’s cloud tops. As atmospheric friction increases, the spacecraft will slow down, heat up, and start to tumble.

Eventually it will ignite, looking for all the world like a meteorite streaking through the Saturnian sky. Even in its final moments, Cassini will be adjusting itself to face Earth and send data home for as long as it can.

Scientists expect to receive their last signal from Cassini around 4:55 a.m. That last gasp will be like a whisper from the dead: The spacecraft will have been gone for 83 minutes by the time the signal travels from Saturn to a radio dish in Australia.

And then, for the foreseeable future, the Saturn system will be silent. By coincidence, Cassini will burn up just one month short of the 20th anniversary of its launch. It left Cape Canaveral, Florida, on October 15, 1997, and arrived at Saturn on July 1, 2004. 

The spacecraft immediately began stunning scientists back home with its views of the iconic planet and its clutch of more than 60 moons. Early on, Cassini dropped the Huygens lander onto hazy, orange Titan. The second largest moon in the solar system, Titan is shrouded in a thick nitrogen atmosphere that hides its oily lakes and seas from view. Now, thanks to Cassini, we know that Titan is among the best places to look for life beyond Earth.

Not long after, Cassini spotted enormous geysers erupting from fissures at the south pole of tiny Enceladus, an icy moon harboring a hidden, global ocean. Like Titan, Enceladus is now considered one of the most likely places to find alien life in the solar system.

These two moons are the reason Cassini can’t stay in orbit around Saturn forever.

The spacecraft’s fuel reserves are dry, and leaving it looping around the Saturn system with no way of controlling it risks an unplanned crash into one of these tantalizing worlds. But even knowing that destroying Cassini is the best thing for science, plenty of mission members are mourning the end of the beloved probe.

“I loved the fact that every morning I could go to my computer and have a quick look at the latest images downloaded from the spacecraft,” says Carl Murray of Queen Mary University of London. “It was almost like having your own webcam keeping an eye on conditions at the other side of the solar system!”

As the spacecraft’s demise has drawn closer, social media platforms are filling with laments—including the perpetual screaming of a Twitter account that just can’t handle the probe’s impending doom.

Psychologists say the function of media entertainment is “the attainment of gratification”. No other results or measurable benefit are usually expected from it (except perhaps the final score in a sporting entertainment). This is in contrast to education (which is designed with the purpose of developing understanding or helping people to learn) and marketing (which aims to encourage people to purchase commercial products).

However, the distinctions become blurred when education seeks to be more “entertaining” and entertainment or marketing seek to be more “educational”. Such mixtures are often known by the neologisms “edutainment” or “infotainment”. The psychology of entertainment as well as of learning has been applied to all these fields. Some education-entertainment is a serious attempt to combine the best features of the two. Some people are entertained by others’ pain or the idea of their unhappiness (schadenfreude).

An entertainment might go beyond gratification and produce some insight in its audience. Entertainment may skillfully consider universal philosophical questions such as: “What is the meaning of life?”; “What does it mean to be human?”; “What is the right thing to do?”; or “How do I know what I know?”. Questions such as these drive many narratives and dramas, whether they are presented in the form of a story, film, play, poem, book, dance, comic, or game.

Dramatic examples include Shakespeare’s influential play Hamlet, whose hero articulates these concerns in poetry; and films, such as The Matrix, which explores the nature of knowledge and was released world-wide. Novels give great scope for investigating these themes while they entertain their readers. An example of a creative work that considers philosophical questions so entertainingly that it has been presented in a very wide range of forms is The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy.

In 2002, Kelly Clarkson famously won the first season of the hit singing competition, American Idol. But in a new interview with Entertainment Weekly commemorating the 15th anniversary of her victory, the singer admits that she actually hoped to finish second, to Justin Guarini.

"I do remember Justin and I having a conversation before, because we found out we had to do a movie," Clarkson told EW. "He really wanted to do a movie. And I really didn't want to do a movie. I was like, 'It would be super cool if I got second and you got first, because the winner has to do the movie and the second one doesn't.'"

When news broke that ABC would take on American Idol in 2018 after its cancellation by Fox, show producers wanted fan-favorite Kelly Clarkson (who won Idol in 2002) back for the revamp.

But Clarkson was already spoken for. She'd signed on to serve as a coach on The Voice in 2018.

So why would Clarkson want to Breakaway from the show that made her famous?

The singer, who just released a new music video for her single Love So Soft, discussed the decision with Entertainment Weekly in an interview published Thursday.

"We’re used to The Voice schedule, we already have to work around it because of our family,” said Clarkson, whose manager and husband Brandon Blackstock also manages Blake Shelton, another Voice coach. "We have four children — that can be very taxing with a schedule. It was just a no-brainer for me with The Voice because of that alone."

That doesn't mean she isn't disappointed she can't do both. "But my thing is, I was kind of bummed too when [Idol] came to me," she said. "I hope it’s super successful."

Clarkson remains grateful for the start Idol gave her, and wants to give back to other aspiring musicians.

"That’s my goal," Clarkson said. "I want to have someone on my team, whether they win or not, to have a successful career after being on the show."

The three-time Grammy winner will join The Voice for its 14th season in spring 2018, making her the second Idol competitor to recently join the NBC singing competition's coaching panel. Oscar winner Jennifer Hudson, a top-10 finisher in Idol's third season, will appear on this fall's edition of The Voice.

From missed periods to menstrual cramps, the period problems are common but usually are not considered serious. The uneasy and uncomfortable situation may make you cranky and can adversely affect your mood. Admit it, you cannot avoid problematic periods but can definitely try some effective remedies to prevent cramps and discomfort. Here we have listed a few Ayurvedic remedies which can help you with period problems.

For Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD)
PCOD is a health condition that affects one in every 10 women. PCOS is an aftermath of a hormonal imbalance in women wherein testosterone levels shoot up in the body causing an array of symptomatic reactions. A woman with PCOS is prone to gain weight, pelvic pain, acne, depression and irregular menstrual cycles. In some cases, women with PCOD may even face challenges in conceiving. But with proper treatment, diet and exercise schedule, PCOD is curable.
The most simple and effective treatment for PCOD is Ayurveda. You can rely on Aloe Vera pulp with manjistha (rubia cordifolia) capsule. This helps in purifying blood and gradually restores the health of uterus which results in regular, healthy periods.

For menorrhagia (Heavy Bleeding)
Menorrhagia is defined as menstruation at regular intervals but with excessive flow and duration. This is one of the most common problems in women. Some women have also reported heavy bleeding for 6 to 7 days during periods leading to weakness and other health issues. According to Vaidya Pravin Hirpara, niranjan phal (China Fruit) is best and effective medicine for Menorrhagia.
You can soak Niranjan Phal in water for 1.5 to two hours till the time fruit swells to the size of a lemon. Crush and squeeze the pulp into the water. Add some sugar and drink it. This effectively controls menstrual bleeding.

For foul menstrual blood odour
Many women find menstruation odour unpleasant during and after their periods. You may experience this situation despite maintaining hygiene. A normal vaginal discharge doesn't have any smell. But a foul-smelling vaginal discharge is a distinctive point between a normal and abnormal menstrual period. The foul odour during menstruation is not normal, thus should be considered a serious problem. It can be the result of infection in the vagina or in the cervix. This foul smell is called aartdushti in Ayurveda and can be treated with manjishta which helps in blood purification.

For Leukorrhea (White Discharge)
A white or yellow sticky discharge from the vagina or uterine cavity is referred to as Leukorrhea. This often gets increased at the time of ovulation or before a menstrual period. This situation is also stimulated by sexual excitement, whether or not coitus takes place. Excessive discharge, however, may indicate an abnormal condition. A yellow or creamy white discharge, especially if it is thick, often contains pus and provides evidence of an infection. Eating one or two bananas a day can solve this problem easily.

General problems
According to Ayurveda, cow ghee is an effective medicine for several health-related problems. "Phala-Ghrita, which is prepared using cow ghee is believed to be extremely useful for gynaecology problems. From irregular periods to pregnancy, it works equally effectively. Hirpara adds, "Ayurveda believes that recipe of this Ghee was invented by Ashwini Kumar, the doctor of Gods."

Disclaimer: Recommendations & suggestion above are generic in nature. Be advised to consult a registered medical practitioner / certified trainer / instructor or other professional before trying yourself.

When you're in bed with your lover, the last thing you want to do is turn them off. Not everyone is clear on his mind on how to have sex which feels great. That said, here are a few common blunders that you should not commit.

1. Treating sex like porn

Although some couples enjoy having raunchy sex, you'd be wise to talk to your partner before you engage in such behaviour. If you begin being nasty with your lover without knowing if they like it first, chances are the scenario won't end on a happy note.

2. Biting before your partner's ready

While many people enjoy an aggressive partner, biting any part of their body before they are aroused may lead to pain and discomfort (and might even lessen the chances of any further action ) or simply scare them off. So make sure your partner is fully excited before you bite their ear, shoulders, neck or any other part of their body.

3. Putting your weight on your partner

Even if you're a girl! It's okay to lose yourself in the moment every once in a while and go crazy on your lover. But when you're lying on top of them, you have to be careful not to drop your weight on them. Chocking them or hindering their ability to breathe will anyway kill the moment and any chances of some good action.

4. Not kissing

Believe it or not, many people (and this includes women) don't kiss their partner when they're having sex. Why? Perhaps because the positioning doesn't allow for it or they are too eager to climax and feel that it might break the rhythm. Nevertheless, it is highly recommended that you make an effort to kiss your partner during the act - it will only add to the experience.


5. Ignoring everything but sexualised parts

Genitals are great, no doubt, but you should definitely pay attention to other parts of your lover's body and focus for some time on their entire body - knees, wrists, back and stomach are highly erogenous zones for men as well as women. Gently caressing these areas will help excite your partner further; in turn, increasing the chances of them pleasuring you back.

6. Staying quiet

Do you like to hear it when your partner is having a good time? So pay them the same respect and speak up when you're enjoying yourself. Something as simple as a little moan, or even saying something like, "that feels so good," will encourage them and educate them further on your moan zones.



7. Climaxing too soon/ too late

This one is especially for men. You need to have good control on your muscles to ensure that you can ejaculate at an appropriate time. Too soon and you may leave your partner unsatisfied; too late and it might leave your partner feeling as if they're pumping iron at the gym. To avoid this, spend a lot more time on foreplay (this will help men as well as women). If you take too long and can only ejaculate via manual stimulation, do your best to get your partner to orgasm and then they can return you the favour.

8. Not warning your partner before you climax

If you're going to let go - and this applies even to women - whether during oral sex or intercourse, you need to tell your partner beforehand. Something as simple as "I'm going to let go," will suffice. Your partner deserves to know.


9. Mechanical act
It may feel comfortable to you to pump away like you do at the gym, but you'll quickly discover that most people don't enjoy such an act. Mix it up a little bit; go fast at times, then slowly. Be creative and you'll find yourself enjoying some variation too.

Bollywood's 'Dhak Dhak Girl' aka Madhuri Dixit is all set to begin her musical journey with the release of her first ever English language album titled - 'The Film Star.'

The actress, who was last seen in 'Gulaab Gang' will mark her musical debut with a the single - 'Tu Hai Mera,' which is a special ode from Madhuri to her fans for all the love and support she's received from them and continues to. It is a fusion of classical Indian folk music with western pop lyrics and beats, bringing together the East and the West, creating an iconic sound and vibe.

The idea to create a multilingual soundtrack from one of India's most iconic performers and entertainers like Madhuri was conceived early last year at a meeting in Beverly Hills, CA between Madhuri Dixit, her husband Shriram Nene and Sat Bisla, President & Founder of A&R Worldwide. Bisla has been an early supporter for acts such as Sheppard, Coldplay, Muse, Keane, Dido, Adele, The Temper Trap, LMFAO, Jessie J, Katy Perry, Sia, Gavin James and hundreds of others prior to their global successes).

Speaking about her new venture, an excited Madhuri said, "Music has been a part of my being from the very beginning. I was pretty clear that I wanted to kickstart this new chapter with a sense of celebration and gratitude for my fans who have offered their unrelenting support and all their love no matter what. So what better way to embark on this journey than by celebrating their appreciation"

Talking further about her debut single 'Tu Hai Mera,' she said, "It was a pleasure to work with a team of talented individuals who understood and appreciated the beauty of the East and West. We were able to create something that really speaks to your soul. Our hope is that the audience will appreciate all the hard work our team has put into the project and that it moves them as much as it has affected us."

Apart from this, Madhuri is all set to produce her maiden Marathi film soon.

Nepali rapper Sacar Adhikari, known for his stage name ‘Lil Buddha’, has become a hot cake in social media. The rapper became a matter of debates in social media after he posted series of live videos on social media networks – Facebook and Instagram– venting his ire on number of issues.

The rapper had initially vented his ire against his fellow rapper Aashish Rana Magar, better known with his stage name ‘Laure’. Both Aashish Rana Magar and Sacar Adhiakri had risen to fame through streets rap battles called "NepHop". Sacar Adhiakri in the Facebook video has claimed that ‘Laure’ had demanded a hefty amount to participate in the rap battles he plans to organize in Australia.

The rapper had also spoken rough words against Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba and the Chairman of CPN (Maoist Center) Pushpa Kamal Dahal. Following the series of videos, many people had concluded that the rapper is mentally ill and needs a good treatment.
Meanwhile, Sacar’s mother had appealed the Nepalis living in Australia to bring back her son alive. She had added that she has given up.

Watch here her mother what she is saying:

"Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt and self-manage when facing physical, mental, psychological and social changes with environment.The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader sense in its 1948 constitution as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”

This definition has been subject to controversy, in particular as lacking operational value, the ambiguity in developing cohesive health strategies, and because of the problem created by use of the word “complete”. Other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction.

Classification systems such as the WHO Family of International Classifications, including the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), are commonly used to define and measure the components of health.

The definition of health has evolved over time. In keeping with the biomedical perspective, early definitions of health focused on the theme of the body’s ability to function; health was seen as a state of normal function that could be disrupted from time to time by disease. An example of such a definition of health is: “a state characterized by anatomic, physiologic, and psychological integrity; ability to perform personally valued family, work, and community roles; ability to deal with physical, biological, psychological, and social stress”.

Then, in 1948, in a radical departure from previous definitions, the World Health Organization (WHO) proposed a definition that aimed higher: linking health to well-being, in terms of “physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity”.

Although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized as being vague, excessively broad, and was not construed as measurable. For a long time it was set aside as an impractical ideal and most discussions of health returned to the practicality of the biomedical model.

Just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a leading role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, but in dynamic terms of resiliency, in other words, as “a resource for living”.

The 1984 WHO revised definition of health defined it as “the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living; it is a positive concept, emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities”.

Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults. Mental, intellectual, emotional, and social health referred to a person’s ability to handle stress, to acquire skills, to maintain relationships, all of which form resources for resiliency and independent living.

Since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Initiative has been a visible component of the United States’ approach to improving population health.In each decade, a new version of Healthy People is issued, featuring updated goals and identifying topic areas and quantifiable objectives for health improvement during the succeeding ten years, with assessment at that point of progress or lack thereof.

Progress has been limited for many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches, and adds a substantive focus on the importance of addressing societal determinants of health.

A new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of these changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years.

Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences. The term “healthy” is also widely used in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts for the benefit of humans, such as in the sense of healthy communities, healthy cities or healthy environments.

In addition to health care interventions and a person’s surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status of individuals, including their background, lifestyle, and economic, social conditions, and spirituality; these are referred to as “determinants of health.” Studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health.

Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance for both his health status and quality of their life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained and improved not only through the advancement and application of health science, but also through the efforts and intelligent lifestyle choices of the individual and society.

According to the World Health Organization, the main determinants of health include the social and economic environment, the physical environment, and the person’s individual characteristics and behaviors.
An important way to maintain your personal health is to have a healthy diet. A healthy diet includes a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods that provide nutrients to your body. Such nutrients give you energy and keep your body running. Nutrients help build and strengthen bones, muscles, and tendons and also regulate body processes (i.e. blood pressure).

The food guide pyramid is a pyramid-shaped guide of healthy foods divided into sections. Each section shows the recommended intake for each food group (i.e. Protein, Fat, Carbohydrates, and Sugars). Making healthy food choices is important because it can lower your risk of heart disease, developing some types of cancer, and it will contribute to maintaining a healthy weight.

Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital for growth and development. Ongoing sleep deprivation has been linked to an increased risk for some chronic health problems. In addition, sleep deprivation has been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to illness and slower recovery times from illness.

In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set as six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a cold compared to those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night. Due to the role of sleep in regulating metabolism, insufficient sleep may also play a role in weight gain or, conversely, in impeding weight loss.

Additionally, in 2007, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, which is the cancer research agency for the World Health Organization, declared that “shiftwork that involves circadian disruption is probably carcinogenic to humans,” speaking to the dangers of long-term nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep.

In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation released updated recommendations for sleep duration requirements based on age and concluded that “Individuals who habitually sleep outside the normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems or, if done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well-being.”
Public health has been described as “the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals.”It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis.

The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a pandemic). Public health has many sub-fields, but typically includes the interdisciplinary categories of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, and occupational health are also important areas of public health.

The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behavior, communities, and (in aspects relevant to human health) environments. Its aim is to prevent health problems from happening or re-occurring by implementing educational programs, developing policies, administering services and conducting research.

In many cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an outbreak. Vaccination programs and distribution of condoms to prevent the spread of communicable diseases are examples of common preventive public health measures, as are educational campaigns to promote vaccination and the use of condoms (including overcoming resistance to such).

Public health also takes various actions to limit the health disparities between different areas of the country and, in some cases, the continent or world. One issue is the access of individuals and communities to health care in terms of financial, geographical or socio-cultural constraints to accessing and using services.
Applications of the public health system include the areas of maternal and child health, health services administration, emergency response, and prevention and control of infectious and chronic diseases.

The great positive impact of public health programs is widely acknowledged. Due in part to the policies and actions developed through public health, the 20th century registered a decrease in the mortality rates for infants and children and a continual increase in life expectancy in most parts of the world.

For example, it is estimated that life expectancy has increased for Americans by thirty years since 1900, and worldwide by six years since 1990. Personal health depends partially on the active, passive, and assisted cues people observe and adopt about their own health. These include personal actions for preventing or minimizing the effects of a disease, usually a chronic condition, through integrative care.

They also include personal hygiene practices to prevent infection and illness, such as bathing and washing hands with soap; brushing and flossing teeth; storing, preparing and handling food safely; and many others. The information gleaned from personal observations of daily living – such as about sleep patterns, exercise behavior, nutritional intake and environmental features – may be used to inform personal decisions and actions (e.g., “I feel tired in the morning so I am going to try sleeping on a different pillow”) 

As well as clinical decisions and treatment plans (e.g., a patient who notices his or her shoes are tighter than usual may be having exacerbation of left-sided heart failure, and may require diuretic medication to reduce fluid overload).
Personal health also depends partially on the social structure of a person’s life. The maintenance of strong social relationships, volunteering, and other social activities have been linked to positive mental health and also increased longevity. One American study among seniors over age 70, found that frequent volunteering was associated with reduced risk of dying compared with older persons who did not volunteer, regardless of physical health status.

Another study from Singapore reported that volunteering retirees had significantly better cognitive performance scores, fewer depressive symptoms, and better mental well-being and life satisfaction than non-volunteering retirees.
Prolonged psychological stress may negatively impact health, and has been cited as a factor in cognitive impairment with aging, depressive illness, and expression of disease. Stress management is the application of methods to either reduce stress or increase tolerance to stress. Relaxation techniques are physical methods used to relieve stress.

Psychological methods include cognitive therapy, meditation, and positive thinking, which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant skills, such as problem solving and time management skills, reduces uncertainty and builds confidence, which also reduces the reaction to stress-causing situations where those skills are applicable.